{"id_concept_class": "", "creation_time": 1512660584021, "event_stamp": "2009-07-10T21:01:20", "def_id_user": "usr_49a467bf4e0db", "def_event_stamp": "2011-08-10T14:39:24", "last_updated": 1512660584021, "def_id": "def_4e42981c9eb74", "name": "cups task", "alias": "", "definition_text": "On each trial, participants choose between a risky and safe option. Each trial involves either gains or losses. The options are presented as a choice of cups. The risky option involves two to five cups, one containing a gain (loss) of $2, $3 or $5, and the others containing $0. If the latter option is selected, the payoff from one cup is selected at random. The safe cup offers a sure gain (loss) $1.", "id_user": "usr_0000000000", "id": "tsk_4a57abb9499d5", "type": "task", "conditions": [], "concepts": [{"id_concept_class": "ctp_C5", "creation_time": 1512660638552, "event_stamp": "2010-01-31T06:37:25", "def_id_user": "usr_51bc76ae9636c", "def_event_stamp": "2015-11-30T03:43:35", "last_updated": 1512660638552, "def_id": "def_565bc5e690aa2", "name": "reward processing", "alias": "reinforcement, reward", "definition_text": "A positive return for performance of a specific behavior.", "id_user": "usr_4b54bb9dcf254", "relationship": "ASSERTS", "concept_id": "trm_4b6525253c63f", "contrasts": [{"id": "cnt_4de7d90024fe4", "name": "money earned"}]}, {"id_concept_class": "ctp_C3", "creation_time": 1512660634720, "event_stamp": "2009-06-22T19:12:56", "def_id_user": "usr_55dcefd8b28c0", "def_event_stamp": "2015-08-28T18:18:46", "last_updated": 1512660634720, "def_id": "def_55e0a60623a51", "name": "risk", "alias": "", "definition_text": "Formally and mathematically speaking, the minimal definition of risk is what (Rothschild and Stiglitz, 1970) call a mean-preserving increase in dispersion. A typical example is a gamble offering $400 or $600 based on the outcome of a coin flip (i.e. with equal probability (50%)); this is less risky as compared to a similar gamble offering $200 or $800 [again depending on the outcome of a coin flip]. Notice here that the mean outcome (or \u00e2\u0080\u009cexpected value\u00e2\u0080\u009d) remains the same for both gambles.\r\n\r\nThus risk can increase by keeping both the probabilities and the expected value the same. \r\n\r\nThere are other approaches to risk that are less mathematically stringent but have higher ecological validity. For instance increasing the probability of a (positive outcome) is associated with a reduced perception of risk. Notice though now that the expected value (or the mean outcome) also increases. So, it is difficult in that case to disentangle the two metrics.\r\n\r\nMany times  the term risk is associated with the probability of a negative outcome, or what is formally called downside risk. This idea is mostly due to the way actuarial science and insurance companies (which are more interested in the negative aspects of risk) use the term. For instance, the statement, \u00e2\u0080\u009cnow we increase the risk,\u00e2\u0080\u009d might be translated as taking more perilous actions, but formally, this is not the case. The point of risk is that the opportunity also increases (\u00e2\u0080\u009cupside\u00e2\u0080\u009d risk). Thus, a situation that is riskier can be attractive, especially if the agent focuses on the positive outcomes.\r\n\r\nAnother approach is the so-called \u00e2\u0080\u009cmoment-based\u00e2\u0080\u009d approach. Here, one is interested in the second or higher moments of a distribution, roughly corresponding to variance, skewness and kurtosis. Skewness is of particular interest because it seems that risk-seeking persons (gamblers) can be attracted by positively skewed outcomes. Bets that offer a small probability of a high outcome are  attractive to gamblers (Garrett and Sobel, 1999).\r\n\r\nOverall, risk is not a unitary concept and should be very carefully defined.\r\n\r\nNote that the term risk as used here should be distinguished from the way the term is used in sentences such as "risk of developing Parkinson's disease". An epidemiologist could help on the definition in that context.\r\n\r\nInput by other contributors:\r\nthe probability or likelihood that an event will occur; possibility of loss or injury; someone or something that creates or suggests a hazard; the chance that an investment will lose value.", "id_user": "usr_0000000000", "relationship": "ASSERTS", "concept_id": "trm_4a3fd79d0afcf", "contrasts": [{"id": "cnt_4de7d90ca34da", "name": "probability of highest reward"}]}, {"id_concept_class": "ctp_C3", "creation_time": 1512660636996, "event_stamp": "2009-06-22T19:12:57", "def_id_user": "usr_51bc76ae9636c", "def_event_stamp": "2015-11-09T00:07:29", "last_updated": 1512660636996, "def_id": "def_563fe3c160d18", "name": "risk seeking", "alias": "", "definition_text": "The willingness of an individual to choose an option with a less-than-certain probability of reward over an option with a certain reward of equal or higher expected value. \r\n\r\nBEHAVIORAL PHENOMENA", "id_user": "usr_0000000000", "relationship": "ASSERTS", "concept_id": "trm_4a3fd79d0b64e", "contrasts": [{"id": "cnt_4de7d854ceb50", "name": "number or value of rewards times probability of reward"}]}], "indicators": [{"type": "money earned", "relationship": "HASINDICATOR"}], "external_datasets": [], "implementations": [], "citation": [{"event_stamp": "2011-02-11T20:22:16", "citation_pubname": "Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991) (Cereb Cortex)", "citation_pmid": "18842669", "citation_desc": "Functional dissociations of risk and reward processing in the medial prefrontal cortex.", "citation_url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&id=18842669&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks", "citation_type": "CT2", "citation_comment": "Via PubMed API", "id_user": "usr_4ac2cdeede9e6", "id": "cit_4d559a784a767", "citation_source": "PubMed API", "citation_authors": "Xue G, Lu Z, Levin IP, Weller JA, Li X, Bechara A", "citation_pubdate": "2009 May", "relationship": "HASCITATION"}, {"event_stamp": "2011-02-11T20:21:26", "citation_pubname": "Psychological science : a journal of the American Psychological Society / APS (Psychol Sci)", "citation_pmid": "17958709", "citation_desc": "Neural correlates of adaptive decision making for risky gains and losses.", "citation_url": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&id=17958709&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks", "citation_type": "CT2", "citation_comment": "Via PubMed API", "id_user": "usr_4ac2cdeede9e6", "id": "cit_4d559a46899b6", "citation_source": "PubMed API", "citation_authors": "Weller JA, Levin IP, Shiv B, Bechara A", "citation_pubdate": "2007 Nov", "relationship": "HASCITATION"}], "contrasts": [{"creation_time": 1512660649516, "event_stamp": "2011-06-02T18:40:12", "last_updated": 1512660649516, "name": "probability of highest reward", "id_user": "usr_4de5345b3b6a8", "id": "cnt_4de7d90ca34da", "conditions": []}, {"creation_time": 1512660649485, "event_stamp": "2011-06-02T18:40:00", "last_updated": 1512660649485, "name": "money earned", "id_user": "usr_4de5345b3b6a8", "id": "cnt_4de7d90024fe4", "conditions": []}, {"creation_time": 1512660649456, "event_stamp": "2011-06-02T18:37:08", "last_updated": 1512660649456, "name": "number or value of rewards times probability of reward", "id_user": "usr_4de5345b3b6a8", "id": "cnt_4de7d854ceb50", "conditions": []}], "batteries": [], "disorders": []}